A judge is a person who is given the task

A judge is a person who is given the task to decide a case. He is the arbiter who is given the authority to evaluate the facts and issues of a case and to thereafter render a decision based on jurisprudence, the law, the Constitution and other acceptable sources.A judge should be impartial, independent, possessed of competence and dignity that is required of a judge. As part of due process, he should posses the cold neutrality of an impartial judge. A judge should always bear in mind, that he is the personification of justice.The people bring the case before the court that he represents, in hopes of obtaining a decision that is reflective of justice and integrity. A judge occupies a position that is above that of an average individual. He should not compromise his morals and should act in a manner that is consistent with his position both in his public and private life.It is very difficult to separate how a judge should act in his public and private lives. By this, it is meant, that even in the private lives of judges, they should live their life in a way that they are good examples to the society. A judge should set aside any biases that he has about the case, further, he should not in any manner allow personal and family relations to affect the manner by which he decides a case.A judge should be objective, making decisions by stating the facts and the law of the case. The decision of a case should have a basis so that the parties would know that their case has been decided through proper analysis and not by the whims and caprices of the judge.Democratic great powers are the manner by which justice is addressed in a given community. In any society, it is important to have a democracy. The people are viewed as the partners of government or of its leaders to achieve good governance. The people in power, like those of government officials should bear in mind that they are there to serve the people and their country and not to fuel their personal ambitions. In a d emocratic country, the people are guaranteed certain freedoms.These pertain to freedom of speech, expression, religion, labor, of voting and the like. These freedoms would allow the people to do their job of ascertaining as to whether or not officials in power are performing their work properly. The government does not have the monopoly of power in a democratic type of government since they know that their people can check them at any time.The government would not be given the chance to impose arbitrary laws and rules that would allow them to rule a country as they please, without thinking about the welfare of its constituents. It is very important for a government to respect the rights of their people by giving them a chance to voice out their opinions as for example, in choosing its leaders through voting. In this way, the people would have a participation in the election of those leaders who would lead their nation.

Legalizing Medical Marijuana

Marijuana has been one of the many abused substances in the world especially in the United States of America. It has been argued as one of the many existing substances which has caused lives to go astray and even to the point of taking away innocent lives. There have been heinous crimes committed which have been linked by the authorities to the abuse of marijuana by the suspects. But even with these apparent ‘hindrances’ to the acceptance of marijuana as a substance which also has its uses, it has been observed in the scientific community that there are medical benefits with the use of marijuana (Sydney, Stephen, et al., p. 722). Apparently, it can be said that there is a tension between the democratic ethos that permeates popular American thought and the republican constitutional foundations that impede the realization of the medical use of marijuana. As far as the democratic ethos is concerned, it can be seen that there is the acceptance of marijuana in the medical field precisely because marijuana can be used as a drug which has the â€Å"potential for use in decreasing the rejection of organ transplants or in slowing the growth of tumors (Dell and Snyder, p. 630).† It has also been found that marijuana can stimulate the appetite of individuals who do not eat well, can serve as an analgesic and an anesthesia among many others (Dell and Snyder, p. 630). With these things, there is the argument that, indeed, marijuana has its own positive effects on the body of the individual and that it can greatly help in the development of a medicine out of marijuana. However, the republican constitutional foundations would argue that the use of marijuana can open the way to substance abuse. Since marijuana is classified as an addictive substance which is prohibited by the laws of the land, the republican constitutional foundations would very well block any efforts in legalizing marijuana purely out of its medical purposes and benefits. That is because the republican constitutional foundations are inclined to promote the laws as they are written or as they have been conceived. The arguments that can be proposed by the republican constitutional foundations can be summarized into the idea that anything that is against the law or anything that is proscribed by the law should not be justified before the law. Doing so would defeat the very purpose in which these laws have been conceived and institutionalized in the first place. Indeed, it should be noted that certain laws have been created in order to promote the interest of the public inasmuch as the welfare of the public is not harmed in the process. With marijuana, it can be argued from the republican standpoint that marijuana use is basically prohibited by the law. Any efforts to circumvent the law should be stopped, which goes without saying that any efforts to turn the prohibited substance, marijuana, into a substance which is accepted by the society if not by the law would very well undermine the spirit and the letter of the law. The tension between the democratic ethos and the republican constitutional foundations, then, rests on the part where marijuana has its perceived medical uses. From the perspective of the democratic ethos, it can be said that marijuana, as discovered by the scientific community, as its medical values although to a certain extent the abuse of the substance would also lead to dire consequences to the health of individuals. On the other hand, the followers of the republican constitutional foundation will argue that marijuana is essentially a prohibited substance although they may agree that substances with medicinal value should also be looked into by the government. To mitigate the tension is paramount in order to close the gap between the two contending sides and bring about a favorable result. In order to do so, it can be proposed that regulatory policies should be enforced by the government in terms of the use of marijuana for medical purposes. As for the part where the abuse of the substance is involved, the legal prohibitions against the abuse of marijuana can nevertheless still be retained without compromising the medicinal uses of the substance. By establishing both a regulatory body on the medical facilities which will utilize marijuana and by putting up stringent measures on banning and sanctioning the offenders who abuse marijuana, a compromise can be attained without putting down the guards of both the democratic and republican sides. It should be noted that even from a democratic or a republican standpoint, issues concerning the larger population can still be mitigated to a point where a solution is crafted regardless of one’s political positions. The issue of marijuana being legalized as a substance used for medical reasons can be met if both republican and democratic sides would agree on two things. One is that the medical value of marijuana is there and cannot be discredited. Two is that, though marijuana abuse is present, marijuana can be regulated within the medical facilities which will adopt the substance in the medical practice of treating patients. In general, the viability of marijuana as a medicine is already established. Substance abuse pertaining to marijuana is already determined both by the legal enforcers as well as the medical field. By not withholding the potential use of marijuana in the broader medical field without abandoning the ever present need to proscribe and to sanction the abuse of marijuana, the middle ground can be established. Works Cited Sidney, Stephen, et al. â€Å"Marijuana Use and Cancer Incidence.† Cancer Causes & Control 8.5 (1997): 722. Dell, Deena D., and Judith A. Snyder. â€Å"Marijuana: Pro and Con.† The American Journal of Nursing 77.4 (1977): 630.

Canter’s Behavior Management Style Essay

Disruptive behavior in the classroom has become one of the most common issues in the educational process; negative behavior not only affects the students but the teacher as well. In order for a classroom to function in a positive manner giving the student and teacher the best environment to operate proper behavior and decorum are essential. There are many theories and discipline models teachers adhere to in modern classrooms of today one of the most influential in the area of discipline was developed by Lee and Marlene Canter. The Canter’s are both teachers and authors; their most famous book is called â€Å"Assertive Discipline† which is a how to book on how to rid the classroom of unwanted behaviors. The Canter discipline theory is based on teacher needs, wants and feelings. The Canter’s believe teachers have their own rights which include the following: â€Å"The right to establish classroom rules and procedures that produce the optimum learning environment, the right to insist on behavior from students that meets teachers’ needs, the right to receive help in disciplining from both parents and school administrators when support is needed. These rights are based on the Canter’s â€Å"Assertive Theory†. All teachers must clearly communicate what they expect from their students and that there are consequences should the rules not be followed (Canter, 2011). The Canter’s believe in a â€Å"take control† approach to the classroom. Their philosophy is teachers are there to teach and students are there to learn, misbehavior should not interfere in this equation. The Canter’s teach educators to take charge in the classroom and be assertive concerning their own wants and needs to their students. Examples of what the Canter’s communicate to teachers that are used in the classroom management today are: be straight forward with students, use firm tone of voice, make eye contact when speaking, use both verbal/non-verbal communication and continually state the teacher wants and needs. According to the Canter’s if the educator can use the above on a continued basis discipline should take care of itself (Kavanagh, & Lang, 2000). The following is a case study of a discipline problem found in classrooms. The information below is from a behavioral situation at an elementary school located in Phoenix Arizona. A nine year old student by the name of Billy (4th grader) is exhibiting disruptive behavior in a class reported by the teacher. The student (Billy) comes from a broken home where the father left the family unexpectedly a few years back. The mother recently re-married, the new spouse has a daughter roughly the same age as Billy: the relationship between Billy and his new sister is not considered ideal. The new spouse often confronts Billy’s mother in a loud voice in front of the children, the atmosphere is not considered conducive to a â€Å"family† environment. Billy is having issues inside as well as outside the classroom. The issues outside the classroom are in the form of arguments with fellow students and a lack of respect for teacher authority on the playground. Inside the classroom his disruptive behavior consist of talking when the teacher is talking which is not only disruptive to the teacher but other students as well. Billy will also speak out of turn, instead of raising his hand to answer a question he will simply blurt out the answer, he will also during this time mimic his teacher in a disrespectful manner. His attention to detail and attentiveness overall in the classroom continues to decline on a daily basis. Billy’s behavior seems to be a reflection of his new family environment. He seems to have authoritative issues and may not like his teacher; Billy seems to have a big problem with the teacher when confronted openly (in front of class) about his misbehaviors. Billy also has problems with his desk partner who is female and calls attention too many of his misbehaviors. According to Canter the educator should always have a goal of creating an environment where positive teaching behavior is the norm and necessary in order to achieve the goal of effective teaching despite disruptive students such as Billy. The teacher must attempt to control disruptive students such as Billy in a manner different from his/her current teaching model. Accordingly, the teacher’s classroom management plan in the area of discipline must be evident even in a class where there are very few children exhibiting disruptive behavior. Without a discipline management plan students such as Billy would continue along their path of disruptive behavior. The focus of Canter’s discipline model is the concept of teacher rights in the classroom. The Canter method is to show educators how to take charge in the classroom by taking into account student rights in conjunction with teacher rights. †¢The right to good behavior.  In the case of Billy the Teacher should start with the basic right to have good behavior from the students (Billy). This right should be set at the beginning of the school year when the teacher presents the set of rules. This right should also be made available to the parents of every student. †¢The right to expect support from parents/administrators. In the case of Billy parents must be made aware of the situation and support the teacher to help Billy correct the discipline issues. Billy also has basic rights in this situation â€Å"The right to have teachers who help them develop by helping them limit self-destructive and inappropriate behavior. † The teacher according to Canter can do this with simple actions such as a strong toned voice or by making eye contact. For Billy this can be dealt with at a few different levels. First make eye contact with Billy when the teacher feels the behavior is wrong, if this does not work then a stern voice , if this does not work talk to student privately voicing behavioral expectations and lastly if all the above does not do the job include the parents/administrators (Turrell, 1999). â€Å"The right to have appropriate support from their teachers for their appropriate behavior† (Canter, 2011) According to Canter this is done with positive reinforcement; let the student know when student is presenting appropriate behavior. In the case of Billy always pointing out the negatives and not giving positive reinforcement when he displays good behavior will not produce a productive disciplined student, the educator must have a balance. †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"The right to choose how to behave with advance knowledge of the consequences that will logically and certainly follow† (Canter, 2011).  Every student should know at the beginning of class what is deemed appropriate behavior and if an act of misbehavior is executed consequences will follow, this should all be spelled out the first day of class in the class set of rules. Canter said: â€Å"Assertive teacher is more effective than the nonassertive or the hostile teacher. The teacher is able to maintain a positive, caring, and productive climate in the classroom. A climate of care and support produces the climate for learning. Canter believes the educator must present balance in their teaching approach, an educator cannot over emphasize the positive or the negative, if one outweighs the other the learning environment cannot be productive (Ferguson & Houghton, 1992). This is done through the Canter discipline model called â€Å"Assertive Discipline†. In Billy’s case it appears his home life is interfering with his behavior at school, it seems he is mimicking the behavior of his new father in some ways and it is up to the teacher to let him know these types of behaviors are not appropriate by using the Canter’s Assertive Discipline† model.

The Treaty On The Functioning Of The European Union Essay

The Treaty On The Functioning Of The European Union - Essay Example It also explains article 101 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union briefly. Two cases that relate to article 101 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union have been selected for comparison in this paper. One case is related to pharmaceutical industry while other is related to the use of the internet. The cases have been selected from different sectors to present a better understanding of the course. The cases selected in the paper have been decided by the Commission and reached the European Courts and the decisions of the cases have been made by the respective courts. The cases selected are not very old or rather they are recent cases. The facts and decisions of both the cases are presented separately and the decisions of both the cases are analyzed considering their significance, the implications of the decision including academic and political opinion on the case. Formerly Article 101 and Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Uni on (TFEU) were Article 1 and Article 82 of the EC Treaty respectively before the enforcement of the Lisbon Treaty in December 2009. Before the Lisbon treaty the General Court was also called the Court of First Instance (CFI). Background information relating to competition policy Competition  is necessary for any market as it is the basic mechanism of any economy encouraging businesses to offer their products and services to consumers on favorable terms. It is also essential to improve efficiency, to encourage innovation and to reduce prices. The competition can only be effective if companies act independently under the competitive pressure which is exerted by other companies. According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union there are two central rules which are the foundation of the European antitrust policy: First,  the Article 101 of the Treaty prohibits any agreement between two or more independent companies which restricts competition. This provision of the A rticle 101 is applicable to both horizontal  agreements (between competitors which operate at same level of the supply chain) and vertical agreements (between companies which operate at different levels, i.e. agreement between a producer and its dealer). There are only a few limited exceptions from the provisions of the Article 101. The most reprehensible example which infringes Article 101 is the introduction of a ‘cartel’ which an illegal conduct involving price-fixing or / and market sharing. Second,  the Article 102 of the treaty prohibits  companies from holding and abusing its dominant position on a particular market. The most infringing examples are by charging inappropriate prices, by reducing the amount of production, or by not innovating as per the prejudice of the customers (Cseres, 2010). The Treaty has empowered the Commission for applying these rules of prohibition and investigating the violations of the rules of prohibition. The commission is given a number of powers to investigate those ends by inspecting their premises, both business and non-business and writing for seeking information from them. It is also empowered for imposing penalties on businesses violating the antitrust rules of the European Union. The main rules and the procedures of applying the rules of Articles 101 and 102 of TEFU are described in Council Regulation (EC) 1/2003. The National Competition Authorities (NCA) were given authorities and powers to apply Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty in May 2004 so that the distortion or restriction of competition can be ensured. The Treaty also provides individual rights to citizen which are

Visit the Jurassic Quest Exhibit and Report of geology Essay

Visit the Jurassic Quest Exhibit and Report of geology - Essay Example Some of the dinosaurs in the exhibit seem a life with sounds and movement. These are labelled moving Dinosaurs. By the touch of a button one is able to control the movement of a variety of the animatronics dinosaurs (Andrew, 68). Such event makes visitors happy due to the fact that they allow them to learn while controlling their movement, the breathing and more produce sound such as roaring. More interesting one can control their heads, arms, and tails as it comprises of different buttons that match to different body parts. I realized that no matter the age was fun not found in museums. Alongside animatronics dinosaurs that have movement capability, there is static one that is at a standstill. These are labelled Museum quality dinosaurs. These static dinosaur replicas are of museum quality which is automatically balanced to depict the palaeontologist recognized findings. These dinosaurs are well positioned in the exhibit so that people are able to touch and feel them. This activity is highly supported as it is what brought about the different discoveries on dinosaurs. In addition to the exhibition part, is a realistic scene shown by the use of digital screens. This assists in the learning of different features of the dinosaurs. Every scene stands for dinosaurs from a given time period that best shows when the dinosaur was in existence. One gets involved into the scenes by the use of sounds, sight, and motion by use of extraordinary sounds effects, lighting, animatronics and fog. In it an environment, taking one back when dinosaurs were in existence is exhibited with backdrops, rocks, flooring and plant materials. There were different dinosaur exhibits available for viewing. These included Gigantoraptor, Sinosauropteryx and T.rex juvenile, Eoraptor a bird like creature, Jobaria a 22 meters long necked plant eater, a seven meter plant eater

Organisational Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisational Behaviour - Essay Example Alice’s leadership styles were very different from those of Isobella and the employees weren’t happy under the leadership of Alice. She changed the focus of the company from creating fashionable garments to making common clothes wore by the Australian women. Delia an old employee and the Chief designer at Fashion Inc decided to resign after Alice took over in charge. This case study shows us that the leadership styles plays an important role on the organizational cultures how and what a leader does, dedicates the success or failure of the company. Organizational Culture is the set of shared values and beliefs that underlie a company’s identity. It is basically the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments. The organizational culture being followed at any organization is a picture of how and what their leaders are doing. The leadership style determines the type of organizational culture. Under different leadership styles we have got different organizational cultures. Fashion Inc fostered an open culture and by large it succeeded in doing so. All employees were well integrated into the system and each individual and his/her thoughts were considered important. It promoted a rational approach to work where there are proper guidelines and procedures. Any problem with the employee be it work related or personal was listened to and the boss tried their best to give solution to the problem. Top management encouraged a supportive culture to provide a satisfying work environment for employees so they can deliver their best. Employees were delegated through their work and the boss worked with the employees side by side. Organizational heads sometimes do not realize that how important role the organizational climate plays on the financial performance of the company. It accounts for

Widows of the New Testament Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Widows of the New Testament - Essay Example With this concept in mind, the purpose of this essay is to discuss how the New Testament represented these women, given the context of the time as well as deciphering what message was intended by including the tales of these widows in the Bible. Although widows are featured in the books of Luke 7 and 18, Acts 6 and 1 Timothy 5, this essay is going to focus on another selection that discusses widows in the book of Mark, chapter 12. Through an analysis of this text, as well as some secondary references, this paper will discuss how widows are represented in the New Testament, if the context of both the era and culture attribute to this representation and hypothesize about what message the Bible is intending to impart to readers through the inclusion of these tales about widows. In beginning this essay, it is first essential to summarize the text of Mark 12. Amid the lines of Mark 12, there are certain key lessons and parables that emerge. Aside from the parable of the vineyard and the w icked husbandmen, another key part of the chapter is the parable of the widow’s mite. ... Through this parable, there are several key issues that come to light. First and most obvious, the widow is portrayed as a person of kindness and generosity. As Jesus speaks of this widow women, he notes how she was not well off financially but, still found the ability to give all she had in an effort to pay homage to the church and God she loved and revered so much. This aspect about the widow highlights the fact that Jesus seems to be showing readers the gentle and giving nature of women, in this case a widow. By using a widow for this parable, it is evident that Jesus is attempting to demonstrate that even those women who have lost their partners in life still maintain the often feminine traits of unyielding compassion and maternal nature to care and give to others. Through featuring women this way, the parable begins with the widow being immediately established as a woman with a giving and caring nature. In addition to this initial view of the widow, a more complex analysis of th e context of the era surrounding this time leads to the discovery that the widow was in a very desolate position. During the time of the New Testament, poverty levels were at literal desolation. To indicate that someone was particularly poor meant that they were at the lowest level of society possible (Study Light). As Jesus did this in regard to the widow with the two mites, readers can decipher that she was a person who literally had nothing to live off of and struggled just to find food everyday. With this realization, it makes the message of the parable even more astounding that someone in this situation could find it within themselves and their faith to give

Physical and Chemical Structure of Penamecillin Essay

Physical and Chemical Structure of Penamecillin - Essay Example CAS name for penamecillin is (2s, 5r, 6r)-3, hydroxymethyl (2s,5r,6r)-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-6-(2-phenylacetamido)-4-thia-1-azabicyclo(3.2.0)heptane-2-carboxylate , 3-dimethyl-7-oxo-6-[(phenylacetyl) amino]-4-thia-1-azabicyclo [3.2.0] heptane-2-carboxylic acid (acetyloxy) methyl ester. Furthermore, the CAS registry number for penamecillin is 983-85-7, and the compound InChIKey, is NLOOMWLTUVBWAW-UHFFFAOYSA-N (PubMed, ch 1). Â  Penamecillin has a molecular weight of 406.45278 g/mol with a molecular formula of C19H22N2O6. It is a monoclinic crystalline compound (PubChem, ch 4). The compound has a density of 1.376g/cm3, a boiling point of 648.774Â °c at 760 mmHg, with a melting point range of 105.5 Â °c to 111 Â °c, and a refractive index of 1.609 (Gibaldi And Schwartz, 362 ). It is moderately soluble in water but insoluble in petroleum ether. However, penamecillin is very soluble in methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, and benzene. It is also readily soluble in dimethylsulfoxide, chloroform, acetone, trichloromethane, and ether. Furthermore, it is an unstructured crystalline white powder with the precise optical rotation of +269 deg, at 20 deg C/D methanol. It also possesses a flash point of 346.2Â °C, with an inflammable limit of 364Â °C when it is a settled powder, and 442Â °C when it is in form of spun powder. Furthermore, it has a slight characteristic odor, and its decomposition temperature is > 105 Â °C. In terms of stability and reactivity, penamecillin is stable at ambient temperatures and should be kept away from heat or ignition sources. It is also a readily biodegradable compound even though it is not a bioaccumulation or eco-toxicity compound (PubChem, ch 4). Â  

A critical response to Donald Davidsons views of self-deception Essay

A critical response to Donald Davidsons views of self-deception - Essay Example Such event, according to the theory, will "permit" the idea that an individual may at any given time cling to incongruous viewpoints and ambiguous judgments about her/him or about a given state of affairs. The concept, Davidson contends, is that if parts of the mind are, to some degree or level, independent, we can comprehend how they are able to entertain and embrace inconsistencies, contradictions and variations, and to intermingle and cooperate on a causal level. This, I beg to disagree. If we take a cursory glimpse, Davidson's account offers a fascinating depiction of self-deception. It seemed to naturally and readily settle the absurdity and the irony of the concept. Nonetheless, if we investigate seriously the sketch of this phenomenon on the "divided-mind" paradigm, grave doubts and opposing protestations will come to our mind.However, before explicitly elucidating my disagreement, let me first discuss another angle that runs parallel to Davidson's idea of the divided-mind occ urrence - Freud's embodiment of the human mind consisting of an ego, super-ego, and id. To the Freudian picture, the ego matches up with the conscious part of the mind, while the super-ego and the id, to the unconscious. The id is steered by impulses, cravings and desires; as the super-ego flushes out the "undesirables" conceived by the id, the ego puts things into action. A Freudian version of self-deception, then, would justify for the absurd possession of diametrically opposed beliefs. The unconscious id discerns and understands that p, but is compelled by a desire to believe that not-p, so it "cooperates" or "works together" with the super-ego to deceive the ego. In this scenario, the agent may deliberately and knowingly assumes a belief this same agent instinctively knows to be false, but the fact that this belief is false is one way or another "concealed" from such agent. In this manner, self-deception becomes unequivocally comparable to interpersonal deception, with two agent -like structures misleading/deceiving a third into believing something they know to be false. Though desisting to succumb to the Freudian concepts of ego, super-ego and id, Davidson concurs with Freud that particular facets of the mind must be put forward in order to explain self-deception or absurdity of any kind: [First,]the mind is to be regarded as having two or more semi-autonomous structures. [Second, we assign] a particular kind of structure to one or more subdivisions of the mind: a structure similar to that needed to explain ordinary actions. [Third,]certain mental events take on the character of mere causes relative to some other mental events in the same mind. [I]n order to accommodate [this feature] we must allow a degree of autonomy to parts of the mind (Davidson 1982) As Davidson puts it, one psychological event can be a cause of but not a sufficient reason for another mental event. Certainly, this framework can be a probable occurrence in interpersonal interaction. For instance -- I yearn for Mr. X to be inside my bedroom, so, I positioned a hundred scented candles of different sizes and colors in strategic places, allow some erotic music to reverberate inside the room and open the door a few inches apart just enough for Mr. X to have a wondrous peek of what's inside and what he can expect if he gets in. As he saw what's in store for him inside that room, he then craves to enter and will want to

A look into history Essay Example for Free

A look into history Essay What would constitute a period in history called a â€Å"Golden Age†? Would the prosperity seen and felt by people make the description adequate? Would a greater sense of freedom in the regions of the world fit the description? How can we describe a â€Å"Golden Age†? In the years of the so-called â€Å"Golden Era†, from 1950-1973, the world saw an unprecedented rise in term of growth, with global averages reaching 4. 9 percent in the period of national Keynesianism (Monthly Review). This period, however, was not an isolated one (Institute of Industrial Relations). The period with the highest national growth rate, from 1935-1950, after an expansion in the previous economic period, 1918-1935, the distance between the two ends of the income distribution became smaller (IRI). Families of workers tried to adjust the loss of distance from the black community by downsizing in terms of number of additions to the family and the use of utilities (IRI). But in order for us to fully grasp the meaning why this period in time is called the Golden Age, we have to frame it beside two other growth periods, one before the age and the one just after it. It must be also noted if there were changes in the period that contributed to the growth of the succeeding growth periods. Before the Golden Age Families in the United States used to see how they have progressed through the years by taking a peek at their family albums, remembering the early years of their parents hard life (Bob Davis David Wessel). During the years of the Age, almost every tier of American life had been extended the benefit of a upbeat and climbing standard of living (Davis Wessel). But again, we must peek farther than the time before this period of unprecedented growth. In the past two centuries the world has seen an era of unhampered growth (Bart van Ark). In the years between 1820 and 1997, the gross domestic product around the world rose at around 2. 2 percent on the average (van Ark). This growth rate was around seven times the growth the world experienced from the preceding period, from 1500to 1820 (van Ark). But as time wore on, the disparity between the recipients of that high growth rate become more and more separated (van Ark). The worlds growth rate accelerated in 1870, and again at the beginning of the Golden Age, in 1950 (van Ark). Since the growth of the worlds economy grew in that time frame, it is not ti be understood that everyone benefited from that growth in equal shares (van Ark). Great Britain, one of the leading powers during the era, learned very well from the lessons of the founder of the capitalist system, Adam Smith (Robert L. Bartley). Smith blieved that raising the economic bar could only be done by practising free and open market principles, that traders and merchants interacting with the consumers will lead to a better share of the economic benefits (Bartley). Agnus Maddison, widely regarded as one of the premier authorities on long-term growth, gives us some insights into the growth engines at the time (Daniel Ben-Ami). In his studies, Maddison points to the year 1820 as one the more impotant inflection periods in the study of the worlds growth (Bartley). Global GDP per capita hadd increased from $420 dollars (1990 value) to about $545 by about the year 1820 (Bartley). The period of 1913-1950 would probably be the most interesting sections of the years before the Golden Age. This period embraces the events of two world wars, the Great Depression, the economic upswing in the 1920s (Bhanoji Rao), and one of the greatest political and bloody historical events in the modern era, the Bolshevik Revolution (Irma Adelman). Both World War one and two reversed the trends for the unrestrained movement of goods, money and migration of people (Rao). But in developing nations, the effects of these events were not felt as much, thus mirroring the differing aspects of the Wars and the Depression (Rao). In the aftermath of the war, large influential movements had espoused the needs for reform, and the captains in the capitalist end of the world were afraid of a return to the time of the Depression (Crotty). What should be seen however in this time before and after the Industrial Revolution was not the disparity in growth rates (Adelman). What was evident during this time was the degree that events bought leading to worldwide economic insecurity and to the global economic framework as a a whole (Adelman). The initiatives aimed at halting the transfer of the economic downturn led to the adoption of very strict global trading and payment methods (Adelman). As the initiatives took hold, tariffs and other quantity restrictions were soon implemented (Adelman). Tight constraints were implemented for the regulation on the movement of workers and capital (Adelman). The value of many currencies tended to be overvalued (Adelman). Rampant and widespread inflation led to the collapse of international payments (Adelman). This development led to the adoption of extreme government concern as to the stability of prices and foreign exchange as it relates to the level of unemployment (Adelman). Shifting to the Golden Era The march toward the golden age of the worlds growth had been marked by a shift from a market-driven and guided economy to one that was basically a government managed type (James Crotty). The era of the Golden age can be characterized by one of swift and widely distributed growth, having for its foundations an increase of control over quality of the markets dictated by the market and vented through the state (Crotty). Rather than a time of markets being centralized, it was a time rather of the markets being embedded in the society, the state rather than an enforcer taking on the role of a guide (Crotty). Agnus Maddison calculated that the worlds GDP rose to an average of 2. 9 percent, hitting 3. 9 percent in Europe and about 8 percent in the European continent (Bartley). The Second World War had spawned a time of demand that was pent -up during the time of the war, as capital and infrastructure was totally wiped out in Japan and on the Continent (Adelman). The command type of economy that was installed during the war, quickly gave way to the reinstitution of the usual framework of capitalism (Adelman). A great aid in the redevelopment of devastated Europe to get the continent up on its feet was the Marshall Plan (Adelman). With this Plan in place, the capital needs and infrastructure needed to jumpstart the economies of Europe were set in motion (Adelman). It was during this time, as stated earlier, that the world was experiencing a high degree of growth (Ben-Ami). In Japan, the Golden Age and the following decades after, the land of the rising sun was identified with the traits of efficiency and the highest levels of manufacturing standards (Terutomo Ozawa). This was exemplified by the low cost in the production of their automobiles nd electronic products (Ozawa). In Europe, the road to recovery was much simpler (Barry Eichengreen). Europe at the time underwent an almost complete transformation in the way they conducted their lives. In the middle of the century, Europes households had heat from burning coal, kept their food fresh with ice, and had no semblance even of basic plumbing. At present, they have gas-fired furnaces for heating, refrigerators to keep their food stuffs, and an endless number of electronic items that will make one dizzy. Incomes of an average European nearly went to three times their value by the turn of the century (Eichengreen). Also, working conditions and hours steadily improved, as time at work was reduced by at least a third, giving a boost to the leisure time of Europeans (Eichengreen). An upswing in the rates of the life expectancy in Europes residents was enhanced by new technological discoveries in health accompanied by a parallel advances in nutrition (Eichengreen). But all was not a pretty picture, as one would think. Levels of the ranks of the unemployed rose. Taxes levied on the people increased. The effects of the destruction of the environment, state repression and consumer spending limits were the order of the day under Eastern Europeans repressive regimes dominated that part of Europe for the next for decades following World War 2 (Eichengreen). But what made the road to recovery relatively easy for Europe? Europe, for its part, didnt have to plan anything new for its rebuilding; it just simply rebuilt. Europe just had to rebuild the damaged or destroyed infrastructure, reinvesting in its capital stock, and redeploying the men that were in the war effort to jobs in peacetime efforts (Eichengreen). This â€Å"catch-up† mentality had demonstrated itself in the utilization of technologies that were not yet in the pipeline, so to speak (Eichengreen). These were the technologies that were developed in the period between the wars, and were used by Europe to sustain its economic juggernaut (Eichengreen). But in the 1930s and 40s, Europe was thrown into an atmosphere of a depressed investment environment (Eichengreen). It was in this period that the United States gained a bit of a headway against their European counterparts. The Americans had outpaced Europe in terms of overall production and levels of productivity. By using the Americans technology, under license, adopting their business philosophies of American mass-production and personnel management, Europe could close the gap on the Americans. Hence was born the concept of â€Å"convergence†, fusing the levels of per capita income and levels of productivity to that of the United States (Eichengreen). But in the generation of wealth, particularly in the aspect of its distribution, not all of Europe could say that they were given an equal share of the pie, so to speak. For example, the northern parts of Europe were gaining faster than their southern counterparts. The same trend went for Western Europe, outpacing Eastern Europe. Eastern Europes woes came a failure of the central planning strategy that was common in the authoritarian governments that dominated that part of the continent. Though these are also important features of the Golden Age in Europe, nevertheless the period marked an era of expanded growth and change on the continent (Eichengreen). The economic machine of the Japanese economy, after the brilliant star of its economic achievements faded, had gone from one that was admired to one that was dealt with indifference, even one thrown pity (Ozawa). This was bought about by the virtues of the Japanese to put into secure positions some of the political interests rather than focusing on the real problems that had dogged the nations economy (Ozawa). In its early steps to climb out of the destruction wrought upon it in the 2nd World War, Japan had adopted its industry to a road of industrial improvement, moving from low value industrial output, gradually moving up to higher levels of value-added goods (Ozawa). But as the years passed, Japan began to remove the protection it afforded to its industries, essentially preparing them for competition (Ozawa). These industries that were left unsheltered were the ones that are the reason for the current state of the Japanese economys morass (Ozawa). Most of the world had been under the Bretton Woods Agreement (Adelman). This agreement was instrumental to the reintroduction to the regime of fixed rate payments, all payments to be based on the value of the dollar (Adelman). This regime was supported by a number of international organizations with the goal of giving some form of flexibility and in the management of foreign exchange inconsistencies (Adelman). After the Golden Era, the period of another growth slowdown was about to rear its head. After the Bubble burst After the Bretton Woods agreement had collapsed and countries and adopted more flexible foreign exchange rates, coupled with the skyrocketing of the price of oil, all these led to the indication that the Golden era was officially over (Rao). This was the era of the â€Å"stagflation† that hit the world in the mid-1970s (Ben-Ami). The Bretton agreement had become quite inadequate in meeting the liquidity requirements of most nations (Adelman). When the agreement eventually broke down, the system was replaced by a unstable, fluctuating means of foreign exchange (Adelman). The currencies of many countries went through a period of devaluation against the American currency (Adelman). But this was only the precursor of the coming storm. Oil prices had tripled their price in 1974, cereals doubled their prices by 1973, and gold prices doubled in the years of 1971-1973 (Adelman). Other problems were beginning to crop up for the world as the age ended. According to the International Labor Organization in its 1995 report on world unemployment, does not dispute the fact the upswing in the worlds economic standing, but it also emphasizes that the world, after the Golden Era, witnessed its GDP cut in half, and the levels of unemployment had reached levels never before seen or to be even though of during the era (Canadian Auto Workers Union). For this reason, economists divide the era into two parts (CAW). The first 25 years at the turn of the century has been called the â€Å"Golden Era†, the second part is called â€Å"The Age of Permanent Insecurity† (CAW). The effects of the downturn were quite visible. Growth rates had been sliced in half, good jobs were the exception rather than the norm, wages did not go up, surpluses were wiped out and social programs introduced at the end of the golden age, were dismantled at a slow but steady pace (CAW). Within a generation, the rate of growth fell to half its previous level, unemployment rates doubled, and decent jobs became the exception. Real wages stopped growing, budget surpluses turned into chronic deficits, and social programs which were proudly introduced near the end of the first period were dismantled in the second slowly at first, but then at an accelerating pace (CAW). The labor market in Canada and other industrialized nations also took a hit, as the unemployment rates hit 9 percent in the latter part of the turn of the century, as compared to the 4. 5 percent average registered in the first half (CAW). In the United States, the Federal budget registered a budget surplus from 1946 to 1970 (CAW). In the years following the Golden Era, the Federal government has never once posted a budget surplus (CAW). The Federal government, for every dollar that it allots for programs, it pays about 63 cents of its earnings to pay for the interest of its debt (CAW). The period after the War was one of significant unheralded growth, born out of the combination of several factors (CAW). Among them was the combination of the development of emerging technologies tapped during the War, the retooling of the war time workplace to be reused for peacetime work, reconstruction of the war torn areas of Europe and in Japan, the demand held in check for so long after the Great Depression and the restraints bought on by the war, and the new found competitive situation that it has found with Communist states (CAW). The War had asked from the citizens a great amount of sacrifice, these sacrifices led to the demand for the upgrading for the peoples living conditions, equity and concerns for their security concerns (CAW). These concessions were won over by the labor movement from very jittery corporations (CAW). But how does this relate to the downturn of the Golden Era? After The Golden Era, what happened? The concessions that the workers had gained from the corporations had produced a contradiction for them (CAW). In the case of Japan and Europe, after they had reconstructed from the destruction of the war and had strengthened their economies, was building a contradictory effect for the corporations (CAW). Once the economies were put back on line, the competition of the industrialized countries again began once again on the uptake (CAW). This upswing of the economies of capitalist industries put some amount of pressure on the companies profits (CAW). The companies in turn tried all efforts to put up a hedge around their profits (CAW), which companies then transferred these pressures from competition on the workers themselves (CAW). Since the workers felt secure and bold enough to challenge any initiative to be pressured in the workplace, the companies transformed these workers from mainly being employees to consumers, increasing their prices to keep their profit margins (CAW). The workers, feeling the pinch of the higher prices, asked the companies for the increases in their wages to match the increases that the companies imposed (CAW). This initiated the cycle of price escalation (CAW). The price increases had a negative impact on the global competitiveness of the corporations (CAW). As a result of such developments, inflationary pressures set in (CAW). The companies had to find ways to stay viable while contending with the workers, who were becoming hindrances to the company in terms of supervision over the workplace. As such, the companies had to choose, between the companies insatiable drive for profit and the needs of the society and the workers, the workers and society lost (CAW). Here is the start of the end of the Golden Era, where the share of the wealth began to be hoarded, rather than shared. Works Cited Adelamn, Irma. The genesis of the current global system. http://are. berkeley. edu/~adelman/KEYNOTE. html van Ark, Bart. Accumulation, productivity and technology: measurement and analysis of long term economic growth. http://wzus. ask. com/r? t=pd=uss=ac=al=diro=0sv=0a30050bip=3d1c9a 4aid=A85DDAB8DCDAC466AE1809C654D7BF3Fq=%60Golden+Era%60%2C +from+1950- 1973p=2qs=0ac=24g=38d1%feF2ARgR3en=teio=6ep=eo=b=algb c=br=tp=dec=10pt=http%3A%2F%2Fccso. eldoc. ub. rug. nl%2FFILES%2Froot %2F1999%2F199908%2F199908. pdfex=tsrc%3Dtxtxurl=u=http://ccso. eldoc. u b. rug. nl/FILES/root/1999/199908/199908. pdf Bartley, Robert L. The future of economic freedom. 2000 October 16. http://www. heritage. org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/wm383. cfm Ben-Ami, Daniel. Ferraris for all. 2007 January 27. http://www. danielbenami. com/2007_01_01_ferrarisforall_archive. html Canadian Auto Workers. From False solutions to growing protest: recapturing the agenda. http://www. caw. ca/whatwedo/bargaining/cbpac/96highlights/96cawconvention1. asp Crotty, James. Trading state-led for market led stagnation: from the golden age to global neoliberalism. http://www. people. umass. edu/crotty/dymski-isn-ford. pdf Davis, Bob Wessel, David. The Golden Age: the rise of the American middle class. http://www-rohan. sdsu. edu/~rbutler/prosperity2. htm Eichengreen, Barry. The European Economy since 1945. The New York Times 2007 March 25. http://www. nytimes. com/2007/03/25/books/chapters/0325-1st- eich. html? pagewanted=all Monthly Review. Notes from the Editors. Monthly Review 2007 Septem

Effect of Globalisation on Communication in Tourism Industry

Effect of Globalisation on Communication in Tourism Industry Globalisation and the Internet have changed every aspect of the tourism and leisure industry – from marketing and communication channels to booking and hospitality services. Many of the previous strategies employed by the industry no longer are effective because of these new market forces. Organisations within the tourist and leisure industry must be attuned to the shift in consumer and business trends related to where they seek information and book their travel in order to maintain or grow their businesses. Companies should also be aware of how various communication channels can be leverage to attract specific regional tourist markets. This paper examines both traditional and innovative communication channels – print, media, Internet, agencies and booking companies, and word-of-mouth – to distinguish between what is effective and non-effective now and in the near future based on specific trends that are currently influencing the industry’s evolution. As t he research found will illustrate, the effectiveness or non-effectiveness of each channel is linked to the travel stage – from planning and booking to the destination experience and journey home. Traditional communication channels within the travel industry have centred on booking agencies an shops, print media and advertising, marketing collateral, and television and radio. When it comes to the destination experience, word-of-mouth, travel kiosks, and tourist centres are other traditional channels that seem to work well.[1] These channels were – and, to a certain extent, still – able to provide brand promotion, nurture customer relationships, and offer a â€Å"value proposition.†[2] In relation to marketing efforts, traditional channels â€Å"follow a passive one-to-many communication model, whereby a company reaches current and potential customers through the broadcasting of the same message.†[3] However, in terms of today’s marketing strategies, there are a number of reasons why this channel is not effective: â€Å"uncustomised message to every consumer, wasted exposures to uninterested audiences, and ‘noise’ distraction fro m competing and conflicting messages.†[4] Additionally, traditional mass media formats of print, television and radio do not offer the new demands for interactivity, flexibility, and accessibility.[5] In terms of booking travel, these channels may still attract a certain demographic of travellers, but they mediums do not reach the potential audience that might be possible if more innovative channels were utilised. This is because of a movement related to consumer preferences from the â€Å"High Street† to the Internet.[6] In addition, these channels could also be considered ineffective based on their inability to maximise monetary resources. These channels can also be ineffective in that they do not build repeat business or encourage long-term relationships with customers because there is an inability to develop specific, customised communications. Print, television and radio tend to be more expensive while booking agencies and shops tend to produce higher overhead costs, making these more expensive than some of the newer methods of communication that rely on technology to reach more people while minimising the cost of using these channels. The traditional methods of commun ication tend to be more fragmented, reducing the level of brand recognition and equity that could be achieved through some of the more innovative channels.[7] One aspect where traditional communication channels may still be effective is with destination guides and services once travel has been booked and the trip has commenced. For example, it is estimated that 60-70 per cent of visitors to the UK will still use travel books and guides while 10-20 per cent will still seek Tourist Information Centres or related â€Å"in person† service to get their information.[8] While 25 per cent may utilise the Internet or a mobile device while others will use a combination of traditional and technology communication channels to find information about their destination while travelling,[9] traditional channels seem to be more effective during this part of the experience. There are signs, however, that indicate that technology may enable these communication channels to become more effective in addressing travellers who are seeking unique destination experiences and on-demand information. While basic information, such as specifics on major attractions, hotels, restaurants, and the like, will still be sought, there may be a need to also supply information on unique places, opening and closing times, special exhibitions, and smaller attractions.[10] As travellers become more technologically savvy, the traditional methods may no longer satisfy demand. As one study noted: For example, growth is being realised in handheld devices that â€Å"combine cell phone voice communication, Internet access and global positioning – enabling visitors ‘en route’ to a destination to access product information and make bookings; to put together itineraries; and to relate their position quickly to nearby services (theatre, restaurants, attractions, events, etc.[11] Those destination service organisations currently focused on traditional communication channels may want to start strategising on how to incorporate new channels into their offering to retain their customer base. More than other industries, tourism is an â€Å"information-intensive† industry that consists of numerous producers that need to work together to serve their clientele.[12] As such, it was one of the first industries to widely adopt[13] some of the emerging communication channels, such as the Internet, which has increased the â€Å"interactivity between consumers and suppliers.†[14] Not only does it provide an inexpensive delivery channel for information, but it also â€Å"empowers the marketing and communication functions of remote, peripheral and insular destinations as well as small and medium sized tourism enterprises which become able to communicate directly with their prospective customers and differentiate their product according to their needs.†[15] Traditional communication channels could not provide the geographic reach that a channel like the Internet has now been able to do in creating an infrastructure that enables information convergence. One niche where the Internet has been particularly effective as a channel for the tourist and leisure industry is marketing communications and advertising by creating a â€Å"narrowcast.†[16] In terms of addressability, those utilising this channel can also provide unique experiences for the consumer. Customisation of information and the ability to create unique sales propositions make newer communication channels, such as the Internet and database management, more effective than its traditional predecessors. The Internet can effectively mirror the benefits of personal selling techniques â€Å"but with much more flexibility, better memory and less cost.†[17] This need for customisation comes from the growing shift in the demographics of today and tomorrow’s traveller. As one research firm noted: â€Å"More attention will need to be given to tailoring propositions to suit the ageing population, those with more time and money to spend on leisure, the childless cou ples seeking quality time, or the emerging traveller nations of China and Central Europe.†[18] Strategies now must address â€Å"multi-generational needs, wants and desires.†[19] The introduction of mobile handsets and high-tech communication channels has helped the industry â€Å"develop and leverage customer relationships and to interact with more customers across more channels than ever before.†[20] The ability to achieve this also creates effective cross-selling opportunities that might not have been possible using traditional channels.[21] Related to these demographic trends, consumer and business demand is also now on an instantaneous cycle. Provide the information that they need or they will move onto the competition. Traditional methods cannot adapt to these lead times[22], making the Internet and real-time answers via web sites a more effective method. Online travel agents are an excellent example of just how effective the Internet is as a communication channel. As one research firm explained, â€Å"The global reach of the worldwide web brings the massive network of suppliers, such as airlines, hotels and tour operators, within the reach of millions of customers.†[23] Unlike a traditional travel agency, online channels provide 24/7 access, real-time updates, and the ability for multiple brands and travel products to be offered simultaneously for the lowest price, reducing the time that the consumer or business has to spend searching for their travel needs.[24] There is also a degree of transparency in pricin g that has never been possible.[25] No traditional communication method can deliver this type of effectiveness. Despite the effectiveness that the Internet and technology have brought to the travel industry, one aspect that illustrates the advantage of traditional methods comes down to personal service. Unfortunately, technology removes the intimacy of face-to-face communication channels. In response, many organisations utilising technology are providing telephone support so that customers still feel that connection.[26] An interesting aspect of business that is becoming a growing part of the tourist industry is environmentally based and involves Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). This becomes especially important in new and emerging economies.[27] In looking at other aspects of the travel and leisure industry that utilise communication channels, the use of local community groups, community leaders, and media organisations[28] are two channels that work effectively to help develop a sustainable tourist trade in developing countries, such as those in Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. These channels can help create a tourist trade in less modernised areas through such â€Å"grassroots† tactics as â€Å"training; participatory workshops; community, group, and individual meetings; local radio; school newsletters; and local events.†[29] In these areas, more advanced channels, such as the Internet, may not be effective except for attracting travellers from Westernised cultures that rely o n this technology to find information. If the goal is to attract more foreign tourists, investment in tactics utilising this type of channel might then become an effective mechanism for a sustainable tourist and leisure industry. The Internet could then become an important way â€Å"to put local tourism micro-enterprises into direct contact with the global market of travellers.†[30] The changing levels of effectiveness in the various travel and leisure communication channels have had the greatest negative impact on smaller, niche travel agencies. They cannot compete with larger online entities that have the resources to participate in the newer, more effective channels created through technological advancements and the globalisation efforts of travel and hospitality firms. Other aspects of the travel and leisure industry can look to utilise both traditional and emerging communication channels for effective coverage and interaction with their customers by enhancing their marketing and promotional efforts while expanding the capabilities of their service offering. The tourist and leisure industry will need to continue utilising a multi-pronged approach through the power of multiple communication channels to serve all its customers. WORKS CITED Buhalis, Dimitrios. â€Å"Information Technology as a Strategic Tool for Tourism and Hospitality Management in the New Millennium.† Tourism Review, No. 2, 1996, pp. 34-36). Grenna, Lucia; Hilbruner, Roberta; Santi, Emanuele; Scuppa, Gianmarco; and Vereczi, Gabor. â€Å"Communication and Sustainable Tourism.† USAID, 2006, pp. 1-27. Kyriakidis, Alex. â€Å"Tourism, Hospitality Leisure – Executive Report.† Deloitte Touche UK, 2003, pp. 1-26. Liu, Zhenhua. â€Å"Internet Tourism Marketing: Potential and Constraints.† Hotel Online. 2000. http://www.geocities.com/luke1980nz/intermet_tourism_marketing_full.htm?20071>. Raleigh, Lori. â€Å"Top Ten Issues in the Hospitality Industry for 2007.† International Society of Hospitality Consultants. November 2006. http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PR2006_4th/Nov06_ISHC.html>. Wright, Tom. â€Å"Customer Contact Services.† VisitBritain. October 2004, pp. 1-33. Footnotes [1] Wright, â€Å"Customer Contact Services,† VisitBritain (2004), 6. [2] Kyriakidis, â€Å"Tourism, Hospitality Leisure – Executive Report.† Deloitte Touche UK (2003), 1. [3] Liu, â€Å"Internet Tourism Marketing: Potential and Constraints.† Hotel Online. (2006), 3. [4] Ibid, 3. [5] Ibid, 4-5. [6] Kyriakidis, Deloitte Touche UK, 4. [7] Ibid, 4. [8] Wright, VisitBritain, 3. [9] Ibid, 3. [10] Ibid, 8. [11] Ibid, 8. [12] Liu, Hotel Online, 7. [13] Ibid, 7. [14] Buhalis, â€Å"Information Technology as a Strategic Tool.† Tourism Review. (1996), 35. [15] Ibid, 36. [16] Liu, Hotel Online, 3. [17] Ibid, 4. [18] Kyriakidis, Deloitte Touche UK, 1. [19] Raleigh, â€Å"Top Ten Issues in the Hospitality Industry for 2007.† International Society of Hospitality Consultants. (2006), 6. [20] Kyriakidis, Deloitte Touche UK, 1. [21] Ibid, 5. [22] Ibid, 1. [23] Ibid, 4. [24] Ibid, 4. [25] Ibid, 5. [26] Ibid, 7. [27] Grenna et al. â€Å"Communication and Sustainable Tourism.† USAID (2006), 7. [28] Ibid, 7. [29] Ibid, 7. [30] Ibid, 8.